Customize for Context There is no best way to facilitate, no standardized model or approach that works in all (or even most) situations. Each group is unique and requires a customized approach for addressing specific challenges. This uniqueness creates an intriguing and complex dynamic for facilitators. Context is the situation and the circumstances that weave together to frame a group’s experience. Context comprises a variety of factors, among them the purpose and objectives of a process; the literacy level of participants; the resources available for next steps; and the nature, length, and commitment of the sponsoring organization. Context also includes the history of the group, how members have worked together in the past, and their interpersonal dynamics, motives, personalities, learning styles, body language, decision-making preferences, power bases, political orientation, cultural heritage, academic background, and familial 1 Guiding Principles
1. Customize for context.
2. Create inviting questions.
3. Clarify assumptions.
4. Ask with sensitivity.
5. Pay attention to risk and anxiety.
6. Maintain a participant-observer stance.
7. Consider “why?” carefully.
8. If in doubt, check it out.
Figure 1.4. Guiding Principles. history. It also involves participants’ work and life experiences. Add to these dynamics the facilitator’s own style, approach, background, body language, and experience, and you have a complex mix! Questions that work well in one context may be completely inappropriate in another. You can successfully ask a group of senior managers what leadership skills they think are required to function well in their industry, but the same question is not likely to be as effective with inexperienced managers. A group of recreation leaders are more likely to respond well to an introductory question that has a “fun” orientation than are a group of stressed-out, timepressed lawyers focused on task and efficiency. Pay attention to nuance in questions. A slight or subtle variation in use of words can fine-tune a question so that it delivers exactly what is needed to support group members in achieving outcomes; by changing one word (as in replacing why with what or how) you can completely alter the tone of a question. Use this checklist to think about nuance in your questions:
What is the context for this group?
What are the objectives and expected outcomes for this process? How do they fit with the organization’s mission, values, and strategic directions?
What makes this group unique (experience, cultural diversity, gender)? Prompt: How can the uniqueness of this group be embedded in the questions we ask? (See Chapter Three for information on prompts.)
Given the experience and expertise of group members, what are they likely to be most comfortable discussing? least comfortable?
Tip: Be sure to check out inferences like this one (about comfort level) with group members. Making Questions Work Questions can be like coins tinkling in our pockets. They have their own currency and we can never be quite sure how far our money will get us. Some are needed for purchasing immediate clarity; others are more suited for long-term investment; a few should be buried in the ground and dug up only on rainy days. —Moclair, 2002
Is this question appropriate to how long the group has been working together and their stage of development?
Create Inviting Questions
Not all questions invite a response. Some may discourage a response, as through the use of inappropriate humor, sarcasm, or a condescending put-down. Ending a question with “Don’t you agree?” or “Haven’t you experienced this?” conveys too much authority to tempt a timid respondent to reply with anything but a positive response. Similarly, a question that begins with “You mean you haven’t heard of . . . ?”does not invite disclosure. There is a price for asking questions poorly. Participants who feel uncomfortable or alienated by the questions you ask are likely to become disengaged and lose ownership for the process. Here are tips on how to create inviting questions that encourage participants to respond.
Ensure that questions are relevant (related to your overall purpose and specific objectives), challenging (stimulating people to think), and honest (not involving a trick or deception).
Don’t ask leading questions. The answer to a question should not be in the question; it should be in the participant.
If you already know, don’t ask the question; just offer the answer. Facilitation is not teaching. Good discussion seeks a way for people to explore ideas. Adults participating in a group discussion or decision-making process do not usually need to be tested on facts. Sometimes, if participants seem hesitant about responding to a question, I say, “When I ask a question I’m not looking for a ‘right’ or predetermined answer. I want to know what you think. This is not a test; it’s a discussion.”
Avoid “asking down.” Sometimes a facilitator needs to define or explain a word or phrase in a question, but if done incorrectly it can be perceived as condescending. Here is a question that talks down to participants: “How do you feel about your income tax—that is, the amount you have to pay the government on the money you take in during the year?” By inverting the term and the explanation, the question is much less condescending:“How do you feel about the amount 1 Making Questions Work you have to pay the government on the money you take in during the year—that is, your income tax?” (Payne, 1951, p. 116). Giving the explanation first and the definition second is a more conversational approach and avoids asking down.
Choose words carefully. Use words that all the respondents will understand, avoiding special terminology, acronyms, and words with more than one meaning (any may mean “every,” “some,” or “only one”; see may mean “observe” or “visit a doctor or lawyer” (Payne, quoted in Sudman and Bradburn, 1982, p. 49).
Clear questions invite answers; questions with more than one interpretation usually invite anxiety. If you ask,“Have you ever used simultaneous translation?” participants may be reluctant to respond because they may not know whether you are talking about whisper translators or the entire technology of live translation with microphones on tables and participant receivers for various languages. If you ask, “Have you used individual receivers and microphones on tables for simultaneous translation?” participants understand exactly what you mean; they hear the explanation first and the terminology second and are more likely to respond confidently.
Take time to think through each question before asking it. Rephrasing a question several times confuses the listener and discourages a response.
Keep questions simple. This doesn’t mean easy or simplistic. “Envision a situation three years from now when our production problems have been addressed, people are happy at work, customers are satisfied, and market share is up.What do we need to do first to make this a reality?” This question is unfocused, long, and confusing. Instead, begin with a simple, single part of the question: “Imagine that it is three years from today and our production problems have been addressed. What do you see going on that is different from today?” If the group is large enough, split the question into four sections and have one quarter of the group answer one part of the question while other quarters are doing other parts.
No one likes to appear foolish or ignorant. Avoid asking questions that cause people to lose face in a group. To reduce the threat in a challenging question, use an opening phrase such as, “Has anyone come across . . . ?” or “Have you ever run into . . . ?” or “Does anyone recall . . . ?” or “Has anyone had any experience with . . . ?”
Not all questions need to be answered publicly. Sometimes a “to think about” question at the end of the day is designed to encourage critical reflection not meant 1 Questions That Work for sharing with anyone. You may ask a question to launch an important discussion that results in dialogue over lunch and stays within the confines of three or four people’s experience: “Take some time over lunch to reflect on how much energy you want to commit to this initiative, given your personal situation. Your conclusions will be helpful in preparing you to discuss the extent to which you want to be engaged in the next steps.” Questions like this one are designed to support interaction and shared perspectives; the responses don’t always need to be reported back in plenary.
Read and respond to the nonverbal messages or “vibes” in a group while you are asking a question. You may want to comment on what you are noticing. People can make it obvious through their body language that they think a question is inappropriate; you can then respond, “Looks like this question may be problematic. Can you help me understand what’s not working here?”
Clarify Assumptions
Most questions have assumptions in them that influence their meaning, impact, and effectiveness. The question “How can we improve our sales record over the next six months?” makes several assumptions: that “we” have the power and commitment to improve, that the sales record needs to be improved, that a significant change can happen in six months, that the record is not up to par. If you check assumptions before asking a question of this sort, you can save a lot of time discussing options for action that cannot be implemented. Prior to using a key question that does not seem right, consult with others who have a stake in the outcome to get their opinion on the question and clarify possible assumptions. Probing for assumptions sends the message, “We need to listen to each other carefully in order to identify and understand what each of us is assuming.Misunderstandings can lead to poor outcomes for all of us.” Facilitators need to check on assumptions in both the questions they ask and those asked by others: Am I correct in thinking that there is an assumption about . . . in your question? 1 Making Questions Work Do you think this assumption is true for our competitors? Does this question stand on its own, or do we need to ask other questions first? How long has that assumption been around? How many here agree with this assumption? I was assuming that . . . and it sounds as if you are making a slightly different assumption. Is this correct? Is this assumption likely to be valid six months from now? Our approach to this problem depends on the assumption that. . . . Is this assumption true for everyone here? Your question sounds like a statement to me. Are you assuming that . . . ? This is what I’m assuming: . . . Is that what you were assuming? What assumption is this based on? Would . . . (a person or group with another perspective) make a different assumption from the one in this question? An additional benefit of checking assumptions may be to discover that the initial question was really several smaller ones that are part of getting to a discussion about what needs to happen next. Thus examining the question closely for assumptions contributes to better understanding of the overall process.
Ask with Sensitivity
Because a question can evoke a strong emotional reaction, it is important to be sensitive to how and when you ask it (tone, voice level, timing, speed of delivery, facial expression, bodily stance, eye contact). You may pose questions on an emotional spectrum that ranges from distant (even hostile) formality to warm geniality. “What do you think?” can communicate many meanings, depending on the questioner’s inflection, emphasis, and demeanor (Christensen, Gavin, and Sweet, 1991). 1 Questions That Work Here are some suggestions for enhancing your sensitivity in asking questions.
Be aware of your body language in asking questions. Are your physical posture, eye contact, and tone of voice supportive and engaging? Or, by contrast, (1) are you physically towering over a group of people who are feeling intimidated? (2) Do you cross your arms over your chest when you think a question is going to be resisted? (3) Do you ask questions while writing on a flipchart with your back to the group? (4) Whom do you have eye contact with when you ask a question of an entire group? (5) Does your tone of voice sound as if you are commanding rather than inquiring?
Use a bridge or linking sentence to introduce a sensitive question. For example, “Everyone in this room has been rejected on a promising cold call. Think about the last time this happened to you.What was your initial reaction when you realized you were going to be turned down?”
Ask permission to pose a question that is particularly sensitive: “May I ask how you decided to do it this way?” or “May I ask you a couple of questions about the situation in your office?”
When a question is too intrusive participants could feel taken by surprise and be unable to respond. Not everyone has the presence of mind to say, “I find that question intrusive and am not prepared to respond right now.” By reviewing your questions and approach with your client or planning committee, you can explore what question types or topics might be considered too intrusive for group members.
Use self-disclosure to express sensitivity. For example, “One of the things I’ve learned over the past two years as president of this board is the importance of sticking to policy decisions and staying out of operations.Where do you think this particular agenda item belongs: in policy or operations?” Use humor carefully. Generally speaking, if people laugh at the expense of others then the humor is not appropriate. Be particularly careful about sensitive topics and issues in politically correct areas—for instance, “-isms” such as racism and sexism. Making Questions Work
Accommodate Risk and Anxiety
Questions vary as to the risk and anxiety they convey in a specific situation. Sometimes questions need to be low in risk, easygoing, and relatively free of tension. At other times—for example, when a group needs to explore difficult issues—questions will carry a higher level of risk and anxiety. Generally speaking, the level of risk or anxiety goes up when group members feel that a question is very difficult, or there is a lot at stake in the answer, or there is a right answer and they don’t know what it is, or the potential level of confrontation or disclosure in a response makes participants feel uncomfortable. Here are some suggestions that help facilitators attend to the risk factor in questioning.
Normalize difficult questions and responses. If a regional manager is facilitating planning with a group of account managers who have not met quota, the question, “What prevented you from reaching quota this quarter?” can be risky, particularly if the regional manager is part of the discussion.Normalizing the challenges that account managers have faced can help reduce the risk in responding. For example, the regional manager (in a facilitating role) could say, “Every one of us has felt the impact of company policy changes in our accounts this quarter, but we haven’t given up, and that’s a good thing.We can learn a lot about what we’ve been through and how we might act in a similar situation by sharing our perspectives on this. So let’s open up and talk candidly:What prevented us from reaching quota this quarter? I’ll start off with something I think I could have managed better.” Understanding and paying attention to the context for a process helps determine the level of risk in a question. In this example, the context makes it clear that the question is best asked by the regional manager, who is also a participant in the group. 1 When facilitating social change initiatives, strategic questions can be used to get ideas and potential solutions to emerge from the people affected; create a neutral and common ground for collaborative effort; create respect and value for the experience of others; listen to people’s pain; ask the “unaskable”; create options; dig deeper; support empowerment. —Peavey, 1994 (adapted) Questions That Work
Before asking questions, be clear with group members about what is confidential (see the discussion of clarifying confidentiality in Chapter Two) and who will be informed about what was said or decided. Start with low-risk questions that involve minimal challenge and require little self-disclosure before moving to higher-risk questions. Similarly, begin with questions that people are no doubt able to answer (recounting an event, or a personal opinion on background materials) so that you can build on their success before moving on to more difficult questions related to personal views on a controversial topic.
Prepare participants for “big questions.” They go by a number of names: strategic, audacious, powerful, great, meaningful. They are also usually focused on facilitating some form of significant change: personal, team, organizational, social, ecological, political, governmental. As such, there is usually a fairly high level of risk and anxiety involved.
Give participants a few minutes to review their background materials before answering: “Review the premeeting paper and then jot down all the ideas that come to mind to describe your options for action.” Then ask them to share their ideas with a partner and develop a list of three or four priorities. These two tasks help people bridge into an answer.
When appropriate, create an opportunity for people to respond anonymously to questions (through card sorting,multivoting, sealed envelopes, interviews, or the Internet). Big questions require courage, determination, and a fairly high level of comfort with risk, both to ask and to answer. They must also be asked by a facilitator who knows himself, the group, and the situation well in order to be successful. A general rule of thumb for big questions is that there should be no surprises. If you know you have a tough question coming up, offer some preparation time so that group members can think about what they want to say. Here are some options for preparing participants for big questions. 1 The 2005 Edge Question has generated many eye-opening responses from a “who’s who” of third culture scientists and science-minded thinkers: “Great minds can sometimes guess the truth before they have either the evidence or arguments for it. What do you believe is true even though you cannot prove it?” —Brockman, 2005 Making Questions Work Make questions available in the premeeting package—for example, “During the first part of the session we will be asking you to respond to three questions. Please come prepared with a brief response to each one. (1) When you think about our Employee Assistance Programs in terms of the next two years, what do you think our biggest challenge or problem is going to be? (2) What are we doing now with respect to our human resources challenge that is not going to be helpful in the future? (3) What are we doing now with respect to our human resources challenge that is going to be helpful in the future?”
Plan the introduction of a big question such that people have time to consider it before answering. Consider an example from a one-day planning session. Before the morning break, we stated: “After the break we will be listening to a presentation by Dr. Doestoomuch. He will speak for an hour before lunch, and then there will be a question-and-answer period after lunch.While you are listening to him, please take notes on how to do more with less—a question that we will be discussing after lunch.” Before lunch, the group was again reminded of the question: “As I mentioned earlier, we will be discussing the question of how to do more with less after lunch. You may want to keep this in the back of your mind over lunch—or even discuss it while you are enjoying the flaming baked Alaska.”
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